Are There Other Humanities? Higher Worlds, Lower Worlds, and Civilizations Beyond Earth—An Inquiry into the Mythologies, Cosmologies, and Religions of Five Continents

Are There Other Humanities in the Galaxy or in Other Galaxies?

What do the mythologies and religions of the five continents say?

By R. V. Garcia — Mystery Schools & Magazine

Introduction—A Question Far Older Than Modern Astronomy

Are there other humanities in the Universe?

The question feels modern. When we talk about other civilizations, inhabited planets, extraterrestrial intelligence, or societies in distant star systems, we immediately think of contemporary astronomy, exoplanets, astrobiology, and the scientific search for alien life.

Yet the question is far older.

Long before telescopes, space probes, and radio observatories existed, different cultures imagined a Universe vastly larger than the known world.

Layered heavens, higher and lower realms, subterranean domains, paradises, abysses, abodes of the gods, invisible lands, recurring cycles of creation and destruction, and beings living beyond the human domain appear across countless religious and cosmological traditions.

However, a fundamental distinction must be respected:

To speak of other worlds is not necessarily to speak of other humanities.

A deity living in the heavens is not automatically an extraterrestrial civilization.

An underworld is not necessarily another planet.

A subterranean realm is not equivalent to a parallel dimension.

And a cosmology consisting of multiple lands does not mean its authors envisioned Earth-like planets.

Therefore, this inquiry begins with a more precise question:

Which ancient traditions genuinely imagined other worlds, other inhabited domains, or other forms of humanity—and which modern interpretations were appended later?

To answer this, we must journey across continents and historical epochs: India, Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Levant, the Jewish and Kabbalistic traditions, Europe, Africa, and pre-Columbian America.

And we must begin with the tradition that appears most frequently in modern discussions surrounding the plurality of worlds.

1. The Vedic and Puranic Traditions: Perhaps the Most Striking Case

Among ancient religious cosmologies, the Indian tradition presents one of the most fully developed visions of a Universe populated by diverse classes of beings and organized across multiple levels of existence.

Hindu cosmology developed elaborate systems involving lokas—worlds or realms of existence—alongside immense cycles of creation, preservation, and dissolution.

Later cosmological systems also feature distinct higher and lower planes associated with gods, celestial beings, ancestors, spirits, nāgas, asuras, yakṣas, gandharvas, apsarases, and various other categories of existence.

Scholarly literature describes these beings as inhabitants of different domains: some terrestrial, others subterranean, and others linked to heavenly abodes.

Here, a critical point emerges for our investigation.

Indian cosmology does not merely feature an abstract "heaven."

It outlines a true cosmic geography.

There are distinct lokas, distinct conditions of existence, and distinct classes of beings.

Furthermore, the Universe is not understood as a single, static creation.

Kalpas represent vast cosmic cycles of creation, destruction, and recreation, while manvantaras are associated with various Manus—figures tied to the organization and genealogies of humanity.

This generates a worldview strikingly different from the modern concept of a single world created once and for all.

Does this imply "extraterrestrial life"?

No.

That conclusion would be entirely anachronistic.

Ancient Indian texts were not using the contemporary concepts of planets, exoplanets, or alien civilizations.

What we find instead is something broader:

A Universe containing multiple realms of existence and multiple classes of beings.

Drawing parallels to the modern idea of "other humanities" serves well as a philosophical comparison, but not as a literal translation.

2. The Higher and Lower Worlds of Indian Literature

Later literature describes these higher and lower worlds in intricate detail.

The devas, gandharvas, apsarases, nāgas, yakṣas, asuras, and other beings do not strictly belong to the terrestrial human category.

Some possess anthropomorphic traits; others are hybrid or supernatural; still others embody cosmic forces.

Academic literature emphasizes this very multiplicity of beings and their associations with subterranean, terrestrial, and celestial realms.

This point is crucial.

If we use the word "humanity" in a strict sense, we cannot simply label all these entities as other humanities.

However, if we use "humanity" in a broader sense—meaning intelligent beings organized into societies existing beyond the ordinary human realm—then Indian literature offers one of the oldest and most complex examples known to history.

This terminological distinction will remain important throughout this entire inquiry.

3. Mesopotamia: Sky, Earth, Underworld, and the Gods

Turning to Sumer, Akkad, and Babylon, we once again encounter a deeply structured cosmology.

Sumerian and Akkadian texts depict a clear division between heaven and earth, the realm of the gods, the human Earth, and the underworld.

Mesopotamian cosmology can be reconstructed from myths, hymns, divinatory texts, and astronomical records. The separation of heaven and earth is a recurring theme in these worldviews.

Yet there is a major difference when compared to India.

Mesopotamian texts do not explicitly feature a collection of planets inhabited by distinct human societies.

The Universe is populated by gods, spirits, and supernatural beings, but this does not equate to a plurality of extraterrestrial human civilizations.

4. What Really Happened to Humanity in Mesopotamian Cosmology?

Mesopotamian myths reveal something fascinating regarding human origins.

Across different traditions, humanity is created to perform duties related to maintaining cosmic order and serving the gods.

Sumerian and Babylonian sources present varying accounts of human creation.

In the Enūma Eliš, Marduk creates humanity using the blood of Qingu, while other traditions describe humans being formed from clay mixed with divine attributes.

In the Atraḫasīs epic, humans are created to relieve the gods of their heavy labor; later, the overwhelming noise produced by growing human populations leads the gods to decree their destruction through a catastrophic flood.

This cosmology is extraordinarily rich.

Yet once again:

We find no statement equivalent to "there are other humanities on other planets."

We find gods, supernatural entities, celestial and infernal realms, and an earthly humanity created by divine forces.

These are fundamentally different concepts.

5. What About the Anunnaki?

It is impossible to address this subject without touching on the Anunnaki.

In contemporary popular culture, the Anunnaki are frequently portrayed as an ancient alien civilization that arrived on Earth.

However, cuneiform texts do not depict the Anunnaki in this manner.

They belong entirely to the pantheon of Mesopotamian gods.

The confusion stems largely from modern interpretations that transformed divine figures from ancient mythology into extraterrestrial visitors.

Therefore, we must clearly separate:

The Anunnaki in Mesopotamian literature

from

The Anunnaki as extraterrestrials in modern pseudo-archaeology.

They are two entirely different concepts.

Academic documentation on Mesopotamian religion treats these deities within their original religious cosmology—not as an alien species from a distant star system.

6. Egypt: Was the Sky Another World?

Egyptian cosmology also exhibits an extraordinarily intricate structure.

The sky is embodied by the goddess Nut.

The earth is embodied by Geb.

The Sun daily traverses distinct regions of the cosmos.

And after death, the individual enters a reality that is not simply the world of the living.

One of its core concepts is the Duat.

Contemporary Egyptological research shows that the Duat did not have a single, static definition. Over thousands of years, various funerary texts developed differing representations of this realm.

The Duat could be associated with the sky, the underworld, or a liminal region between the earth and the horizon.

Here, we again encounter "another world."

Yet we must ask:

Is it another planet inhabited by another humanity?

Textual evidence does not support that claim.

The Duat belongs fundamentally to funerary cosmology and the post-mortem existence.

Once again: another world does not automatically mean another planet.

7. The Egyptian Realm of the Dead

Egyptian religion describes an afterlife in which the deceased encounters deities, spirits, and diverse entities.

The deceased had to navigate unknown regions, overcome perils, recite magical formulas, and achieve a transformed state of being.

Modern studies of Egyptian funerary texts highlight the fluidity and variety of concepts regarding the location and nature of the beyond.

Thus, while Egypt provides a cosmology of multiple domains, it offers no direct evidence that the ancient Egyptians believed in other human civilizations scattered across the galaxy.

8. The Hebrew and Jewish Traditions

This is where the subject becomes even more compelling.

The Jewish tradition possesses a complex cosmology involving multiple heavens, angels, spiritual realms, lower regions, and diverse accounts of creation.

It is precisely within this context that Arqa appears.

However, a common misconception needs clarifying.

Arqa should not be automatically attributed to 1 Enoch as if it were a physical planet inhabited by a secondary humanity.

The concept of the "seven earths" features prominently in Rabbinic literature and later in Jewish mystical traditions.

In sources tied to the Zohar, seven distinct earths are named:

Eretz, Adamah, Gai, Neshiyyah, Tsiyyah, Arqa, and Tevel.

The Zohar explicitly details seven earths corresponding to the seven firmaments.

A later Midrashic tradition describes Arqa as one of the lower earths, connecting it with Gehenna and the souls of the wicked.

Thus, Arqa is genuinely present within Jewish cosmological tradition.

Yet that does not make it an "extraterrestrial planet."

9. Arqa and the Descendants of Cain

Kabbalistic tradition adds another intriguing dimension.

In the Zohar, Arqa is associated with one of the lower earths and linked to the descendants of Cain.

A scholarly translation of the Zohar preserved in the Pritzker edition records this precise understanding of Arqa as one of the seven nether earths.

This renders Arqa far more interesting than a mere "mysterious word."

Yet we must resist the urge to project modern astronomy onto mystical cosmology.

Arqa belongs to the cosmological universe of Jewish mystical literature.

There is no textual basis for claiming its authors were describing an exoplanet.

10. What About the Book of Enoch?

Here we reach the key text that inspired this entire inquiry.

1 Enoch features celestial journeys, realms of creation, angels, stars, abysses, mountains, rivers, abodes of the dead, and diverse cosmic domains.

It is one of the most fascinating Jewish documents from the Second Temple period.

Yet one point must remain crystal clear:

1 Enoch does not explicitly teach a doctrine of multiple extraterrestrial humanities.

The text presents an intricate cosmology.

That is an entirely different matter.

Therefore, when someone claims:

"The Book of Enoch proves the ancient Jews knew of other humanities on other worlds,"

the appropriate response is to ask:

Where is the text?

Which chapter?

Which manuscript?

Which translation?

Which Hebrew or Aramaic term?

And what is the scholarly consensus regarding that passage?

Without concrete answers to these questions, we are looking at a modern reading rather than a textual conclusion.

11. Does Kabbalah Go Further?

Kabbalah develops an even more layered cosmology.

Beyond the seven earths, it introduces the famous Four Worlds:

Atzilut — Emanation Beriah — Creation Yetzirah — Formation Assiah — Action

Kabbalistic literature also forged deep connections between cosmology, the sefirot, spiritual planes, and celestial structures. Studies in classical Kabbalah demonstrate how various authors linked astronomical structures, sefirot, and distinct levels of reality.

Once again, however:

These "worlds" should not be automatically translated as physical planets.

They are cosmological, spiritual, and metaphysical categories.

12. Europe: The Greeks, the Pythagoreans, and the Plurality of Worlds

It is within the realm of Greek philosophy that a decisive shift occurs.

Here, a debate emerges that closely mirrors our modern inquiry:

Could there be other material worlds similar to our own?

Ancient philosophers explicitly debated this possibility.

The atomism of Epicurus and Lucretius, for instance, was directly tied to the concept of a plurality of worlds.

Pythagoreans and other thinkers also developed cosmological models that expanded the debate over the structure of the Universe.

Centuries later, this line of thought was revived by figures like Giordano Bruno.

It was this rich history that Camille Flammarion explored in his work La Pluralité des Mondes Habités (The Plurality of Inhabited Worlds).

Flammarion surveyed thinkers and traditions from antiquity to modern science, showing how the question of inhabited worlds had persisted across Western thought.

By the 19th century, Flammarion transformed the subject into a philosophical and astronomical defense of world plurality.

His 1864 work explicitly addressed the possibility of diverse inhabited worlds and a wider cosmic humanity.

13. Flammarion and Cosmic Humanity

Here, we finally encounter a vision closely aligned with our central question.

Flammarion was not simply asserting:

"Other planets exist."

He was arguing a far broader thesis:

Humanity might be part of a vast cosmic reality.

In his view, the humanities of different worlds could form part of a universal humanity.

This concept is explicitly framed in his work when he discusses the relationship between terrestrial humanity and the "humanities of other worlds."

Note the historical context:

Flammarion wrote in the 19th century.

He was not presenting a literal reading of Vedic, Sumerian, or Egyptian cosmology.

He was contributing to a modern tradition regarding the plurality of inhabited worlds, shaped by astronomy, philosophy, and the history of ideas.

14. Africa: Worlds of the Living, the Dead, Gods, and Ancestors

When examining the African continent, we must avoid broad oversimplifications.

There is no single "African mythology."

Instead, there are hundreds of distinct traditions, peoples, and religious systems.

African cosmologies frequently incorporate visions of:

The world of the living;

The realm of the ancestors;

Deities;

Spirits;

Cosmic forces;

Unseen regions;

Realms tied to creation;

Interactions between the living and the deceased.

Comparative studies of African religions highlight the pervasive presence of gods, ancestors, spirits, and supernatural forces integrated within these distinct cosmologies.

15. Yoruba Cosmology

Among the Yoruba, for example, we find a clear distinction between the human world and the realm of the divine.

Literature on Yoruba cosmology describes a dynamic interaction between the human sphere and the realm of the gods, with ancestors occupying a pivotal role within this structure.

This is highly relevant to our inquiry.

Is there another world?

Yes—in a cosmological and spiritual sense.

Are there other beings?

Yes.

Are there deities, ancestors, and spirits?

Yes.

Is there evidence that the ancient Yoruba were describing human civilizations on other physical planets?

There is no sufficient evidence to support that claim.

16. The Dogon and the Sirius Mystery

No modern review of African cosmologies can ignore the Dogon.

Popular UFO literature transformed certain Dogon narratives about Sirius and the Nommo into claimed evidence of ancient extraterrestrial astronomical knowledge.

However, this subject remains deeply controversial.

Popular interpretations often stray far beyond the available ethnographic data.

Consequently, the Dogon and Sirius should be approached as a case study in how a traditional cosmology can be reinterpreted by modern culture, rather than as automatic proof of alien contact.

This distinction is critical.

17. Pre-Columbian Americas

Across the Americas, we again discover extraordinarily sophisticated cosmologies.

The Maya, Aztecs, Andean civilizations, and many other societies developed religious systems in which sky, Earth, underworld, time cycles, stars, planets, gods, and creation were deeply intertwined.

In Mesoamerica, astronomy was integral to cosmological organization.

Archaeological research confirms that landscapes, urban centers, and monumental architecture were frequently aligned with celestial phenomena.

Yet the core question remains:

Does this indicate other humanities?

Not necessarily.

18. The Maya: The Universe as a Living Structure

Mayan cosmology featured a complex framework encompassing the sky, the earth, subterranean realms, and distinct cosmic dimensions.

Archaeological and iconographic studies reveal that the Maya viewed the cosmos as a highly ordered structure organized by cardinal directions, layered planes, and alignments connecting sky, earth, and underworld.

The Milky Way itself figures prominently in modern scholarly discussions of Mayan cosmology and creation myths.

A recent archaeoastronomical hypothesis proposes that specific Mayan architectural complexes were oriented relative to the Milky Way and its creation narratives.

This is a compelling insight.

Yet once again:

The Milky Way functioned as a cosmological and religious reality—we do not find statements equating it to extraterrestrial human civilizations.

19. The Popol Vuh and Prior Worlds

The Popol Vuh, preserved in the Kʼicheʼ language, recounts a complex creation narrative.

The gods seek to fashion a world containing beings capable of speaking, recognizing, and worshipping their creators.

Earlier attempts at creation take place.

Beings are created and subsequently destroyed.

The world is reshaped.

This concept is essential because it demonstrates that certain Native American cosmologies imagined multiple stages or states of creation.

Yet again:

Multiple creations do not equal multiple alien civilizations.

20. The Aztecs and the Five Suns

Mexica tradition offers one of the best-known accounts of successive creation cycles.

The present world belongs to a specific cosmic era, preceded by other worlds or eras.

The myth of the Five Suns details a succession of distinct cosmic ages, each brought to an end and subsequently recreated.

This concept brings us to an intriguing question:

What if present humanity is not the first humanity?

Still, caution is necessary.

These prior eras do not represent different planets.

They represent distinct cosmic orders or epochs of existence.

Recent research into Nahua "otherworlds" shows that domains such as Mictlan and Tlalocan must be understood within their own cosmological framework, rather than as a European-style, multi-tiered Universe.

21. Incas and the Andes

Andean civilizations similarly held a cosmology where the sky, Earth, mountains, ancestors, deities, and natural cycles were deeply interconnected.

Incan cosmology cannot be reduced to simple religious astronomy.

The natural environment itself was understood as part of a cosmological layout.

Comparative studies of Incan and Aztec cosmologies illustrate how celestial phenomena and natural features were seamlessly integrated into religious worldviews and ritual practices.

Yet we must not automatically reframe deities and spiritual realms as extraterrestrial beings.

22. The Olmecs: A Necessary Caution

In the case of the Olmecs, the interpretive challenge is even greater.

While we possess significant archaeological, iconographic, and material evidence, we lack an Olmec literary record equivalent to the Popol Vuh that would allow us to reconstruct their complete cosmology.

Consequently, assertions such as:

"The Olmecs believed in extraterrestrials from other galaxies"

lack the documentary backing available for other cultures.

We must carefully separate archaeological evidence from modern speculation.

23. What About the Rest of the Americas?

Across indigenous cultures throughout the Americas, we find recurring motifs, including:

Celestial worlds;

Subterranean realms;

Ancestors;

Beings descending from the sky;

Cosmic transformations;

Creation cycles;

Supernatural animals;

Personified stars;

Journeys across different realms.

Yet each tradition must be examined on its own terms.

There is no single "Indigenous American religion."

And we should avoid recasting all these cosmologies into ancient versions of the extraterrestrial hypothesis.

24. Where Do "Other Humanities" Actually Appear?

Having surveyed these cosmological systems, we can begin categorizing them:

Category 1 — Other Spiritual Worlds Egypt, Judaism, early Christianity, African traditions, and various indigenous cosmologies. Here we find other domains of existence, but not necessarily other physical planets.

Category 2 — Other Cosmic Realms India, certain Greek philosophical traditions, and specific later cosmologies. Here we find concepts that come closer to a broader cosmic plurality.

Category 3 — Other Intelligent Beings India, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Judaism, Africa, and Mesoamerica. Here we find gods, angels, spirits, ancestors, and diverse categories of entities.

Category 4 — Other Humanities Here the list narrows significantly. We must locate traditions describing human-like beings inhabiting other worlds or physical realities.

It is precisely at this intersection that India stands out.

25. India: The Closest Parallel to the Modern Question

Indian literature features numerous categories of beings, distinct worlds, and vast cosmological cycles.

It does not simply depict a heaven and a hell.

Its structure is far more complex.

Beings can be born into or exist across varying cosmic conditions.

Some realms belong to the gods; others to spiritual entities; others to subterranean beings.

Furthermore, existence is dynamic: beings can reincarnate across different states.

This structure makes Indian cosmology one of the ancient traditions closest to the philosophical idea of a plurality of inhabited worlds.

Even so, we should refrain from claiming:

"Ancient Hindus knew about extraterrestrials."

That would project a modern concept onto an ancient religious cosmology.

26. The Greek Tradition: A Shift Toward the Physical

With certain Greek philosophers, the nature of the question changes.

The focus shifts away from gods, spirits, or post-mortem realms.

A new hypothesis emerges: the existence of multiple physical worlds.

The atomism of Epicurus and Lucretius made it possible to imagine an infinite universe where varying combinations of matter could yield countless physical worlds.

Centuries later, this idea re-emerged forcefully during the Renaissance and early natural philosophy.

This path ultimately led to Giordano Bruno.

27. Giordano Bruno and the Infinite Universe

Bruno pushed the idea much further.

If the stars were distant suns, there could be other worlds orbiting them.

And if other worlds existed, Earth could no longer claim an absolute, singular position in the Universe.

From this point forward, the question "Are there other worlds?" began taking on a structure recognizable to modern thought.

Yet Bruno operated within a deeply metaphysical philosophy.

He was not practicing astrobiology.

28. Flammarion: From Philosophy to Cosmic Humanity

In the 19th century, Camille Flammarion revived this intellectual tradition and framed it within modern astronomy.

His work La Pluralité des Mondes Habités, published in 1862 and expanded in 1864, became a landmark text in the cultural history of the inhabited worlds hypothesis.

Flammarion was not simply positing microscopic life.

He envisioned a true cosmic humanity.

His writing explicitly explored the relationship between terrestrial humanity and the "humanities of other worlds."

Here, at last, is a formulation nearly identical to our modern question:

Are we the only humanity in the Universe?

29. What About Esoteric Traditions?

Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, various esoteric, spiritualist, and occult movements synthesized:

Ancient cosmologies;

The plurality of worlds;

Spiritual evolution;

Unseen planes;

Hierarchies of beings;

Reincarnation;

Astronomy;

Philosophy.

Within these circles, the concept of other humanities gained significant traction.

The idea expanded beyond "other nations on Earth" to mean:

Intelligent beings inhabiting other worlds, participating in a shared cosmic evolution.

This concept was later absorbed into spiritualist literature and various esoteric movements.

30. The 20th Century: Reinterpreting Myths through the Extraterrestrial Lens

The 20th century brought another shift.

The word "world" was increasingly replaced by:

Planet.

"Celestial beings" were reinterpreted as:

Extraterrestrials.

"Messengers of the gods" were viewed as:

Visitors from other star systems.

Ancient myths began to be filtered through the lens of modern technology.

This laid the groundwork for much of the "ancient astronaut" hypothesis.

Yet this modern framework must be kept strictly distinct from ancient source material.

31. Modern Science Has Transformed the Question

Today, we know something ancient thinkers could not:

There are billions of stars in the Milky Way, many orbited by planets.

Modern astronomy has confirmed a vast array of exoplanets.

A review published in the Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics (2024) notes that while human interest in the plurality of worlds spans over two millennia, contemporary astronomy has turned an ancient philosophical question into an empirical investigation driven by the discovery of exoplanetary systems.

This fundamentally reshapes the inquiry.

Ancient thinkers asked:

"Could other worlds exist?"

Today we ask:

"How many planets exist, and which ones harbor conditions suitable for life?"

They are distinct questions.

32. Comparative Overview

Having surveyed these traditions, we can summarize the landscape:

Tradition	Multiple Worlds / Domains	Non-Human Beings	Other Humanities Clearly Described?
Vedic / Puranic India	Yes	Yes, vast diversity	Closest ancient parallel to the concept
Sumer	Yes (Sky / Earth / Underworld)	Yes	Unproven
Akkad / Babylon	Yes	Yes	Unproven
Ancient Egypt	Yes (including the Duat)	Yes	Unproven
Ancient Judaism	Yes	Angels / Spirits	Unproven
Kabbalah / Zohar	Yes (7 earths and 4 worlds)	Yes	Later mystical readings allow broader interpretations, but do not equal physical astronomy
Ancient Greece	Plurality of worlds in some schools	Yes	Certain philosophers approached a physical concept of other worlds
Maya	Complex layered cosmology	Yes	Unproven
Aztec / Nahua	Distinct domains and cosmic eras	Yes	Unproven
Inca / Andean	Sky, Earth, Underworld, Deities	Yes	Unproven
African Traditions	Diverse spiritual realms	Yes	Unproven as a general rule
Modern Spiritualism	Yes	Yes	Yes, explicitly in certain movements
Camille Flammarion	Yes	Yes	Yes, explicitly

33. The Question of "Other Galaxies"

Here we reach an even more modern boundary.

None of the ancient cosmologies analyzed possessed the modern concept of a galaxy.

Ancient observers tracked the Milky Way, stars, and planets.

However, they lacked an understanding of galactic structures as defined by modern astrophysics.

Therefore, asserting that:

"Ancient cultures knew about inhabited extra-galactic systems"

is a claim that requires extraordinary evidence—none of which exists in the documented record.

What we do find is something perhaps even more compelling:

A long history of human imagination exploring the plurality of existence.

34. The Universal Pattern Across Five Continents

When we place these traditions side by side, a striking pattern emerges.

Independently, cultures across the globe envisioned:

Heavens; Underworlds; Higher realms; Celestial beings; Ancestors; Spirits; Gods; Cycles of creation; Worlds destroyed and reborn; Unseen dimensions; Forms of existence beyond everyday human experience.

This does not empirically prove these realms exist physically.

However, it proves that the intuition that reality might be far larger than human perception can capture is one of the most persistent themes in human history.

35. The Real Mystery

We must distinguish between two questions:

"Did ancient people encounter extraterrestrials?"

and

"Why have so many cultures imagined a reality populated by beings and worlds beyond humanity?"

The first question requires specific historical and physical evidence.

The second is a documented anthropological fact.

Across time and geography, humans constructed cosmologies in which humanity did not occupy the entirety of existence.

For some, that space was filled by gods. For others, ancestors. For others, spirits. For ancient India, an immense diversity of beings and realms. For Greek atomists, potential physical worlds. For Flammarion, other humanities scattered across the Universe. And for contemporary science, an unimaginable number of exoplanetary systems.

Conclusion—Are We the Only Humanity in the Universe?

To date, we have no confirmed scientific evidence of another extraterrestrial humanity.

Nor do we have sufficient historical evidence to claim ancient civilizations possessed knowledge of alien societies.

Yet there is a vast difference between those two statements and dismissiveness.

The absence of historical proof does not mean the idea of world plurality is new.

It is ancient.

In India, we find a cosmology of endless worlds and diverse beings. In Mesopotamia, a cosmic framework balancing sky, earth, gods, humans, and the underworld. In Egypt, the Duat and a complex geography of the afterlife. In Judaism and Kabbalah, layered heavens, lower earths, and systems like the seven earths, including Arqa. In Mesoamerican traditions, cosmic eras, layered domains, and deep links between humanity, deities, and the stars. In African cosmologies, dynamic connections between the living, divinity, spirits, and ancestors. And in Western philosophy—from ancient Greece to Renaissance thinkers and 19th-century astronomers like Camille Flammarion—the question gradually evolved into the hypothesis of physical worlds inhabited by other humanities.

Perhaps the deepest question is not simply:

"Are there aliens?"

Perhaps it is:

Why has humanity, from its earliest recorded moments, almost never imagined itself completely alone in the Universe?

That question remains open.

Today, we possess tools ancient thinkers lacked: instruments capable of observing planets around distant stars.

Perhaps the ancient question of "other worlds" has finally found its true field of inquiry.

No longer only in myth. No longer only in religion. But up in the sky.

A Final Distinction: Myth, Cosmology, and Hypothesis

This inquiry does not seek to conflate mythology with astronomy.

Myth is myth. Religion is religion. Ancient cosmology is ancient cosmology. The extraterrestrial hypothesis is a distinct hypothesis. And science is science.

We can draw historical comparisons without blurring these boundaries.

The fact that an ancient culture spoke of seven heavens does not mean they discovered seven physical dimensions.

The fact that a tradition spoke of other worlds does not mean they knew of exoplanets.

The fact that a religion spoke of celestial beings does not mean they were describing extraterrestrials.

Yet it remains valid to ask whether behind these ancient models lies a universal human intuition:

The possibility that reality is vastly larger than the world we can see.

That question remains open.

And perhaps that is why it has survived thousands of years of human history—and continues to be asked today.

Bibliography and Further Reading

Flammarion, Camille. La Pluralité des Mondes Habités. Paris: Didier, 1864. A foundational text tracing the history of the plurality of worlds from antiquity and exploring the concept of cosmic humanity.

Mayor, Michel. "Plurality of Worlds." Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 62, 2024. A scientific overview of world plurality and the modern discovery of exoplanets.

Rochberg, Francesca. "Mesopotamian Cosmology." In A Companion to the Ancient Near East. Wiley, 2020.

Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Mesopotamian Creation Myths." Introductory study on Sumerian and Babylonian cosmogonies and cosmic structures.

ORACC — Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses. Academic resource on An/Anu, Enki/Ea, and Mesopotamian cosmology.

Zago, Silvia. "Imagining the Beyond: The Conceptualization of Duat between the Old and Middle Kingdoms." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, vol. 54, 2018, pp. 203–217.

Zago, Silvia. A Journey through the Beyond: The Development of the Concept of Duat and Related Cosmological Notions in Egyptian Funerary Literature. Lockwood Press, 2022.

Oxford Bibliographies in Hinduism. "Cosmology." Analysis of yugas, kalpas, manvantaras, and cosmic creation cycles.

Oxford Bibliographies in Hinduism. "Classes of Beings." Overview of entities spanning terrestrial, subterranean, and celestial realms.

Cambridge University Press. Studies on Mayan cosmology, sacred geography, and the integration of astronomy and myth.

Madajczak, Julia; Mikulska, Katarzyna; Martínez, Roberto. "Beyond Mictlan: The Otherworlds of the Pre-Contact Nahua." Ancient Mesoamerica, 2026.

Nielsen, Jesper; Reunert, Toke Sellner. "Dante's Heritage: Questioning the Multi-Layered Model of the Mesoamerican Universe." Antiquity, 2015.

Olupona, Jacob K. African Religions: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. Analysis of African cosmologies, deities, spirits, and ancestor veneration.

Zohar / Kabbalistic Tradition. Primary literature on the seven earths, including Arqa, and their correspondences with the firmaments.

Ginzberg, Louis. The Legends of the Jews. Collection of Rabbinic traditions detailing the seven earths and lower cosmological realms.

Methodological Note

This study employs "other humanities" in a strict sense. Consequently, deities, angels, spirits, ancestors, giants, nāgas, and other entities are not automatically classified as "extraterrestrial humanities." Where a tradition describes only distinct realms or distinct entities, it is noted as such.

This methodological distinction is essential to prevent ancient cosmologies from being retroactively reframed as science fiction narratives.